新教传教士与近代中国（1807-1953）
十九世纪早期，说英语的国家里发生了宗教大复兴（常被称为第二次大觉醒），因此促进了海外的宣教，于是英美国家的不少传教士到世界许多国家和地区去传播基督教的信仰。十九世纪被称为宣教的伟大世纪。
1807年，第一位新教传教士马礼逊进入中国，之后陆陆续续有更多的传教士及他们的妻子和儿女来到中国。传教士刚入中国的时候，清朝采取的依然是闭关锁国的政策，所以他们只能逗留在澳门与广州十三行。1842年签订条约之后，传教士们能够住在五个通商口岸。1860年第二次鸦片战争之后，传教士得以进入内陆。
在接下来的几十年内，新教的传教事业发展很迅速。1860年只有60位新教传教士，到1900年已经有2500位传教士（包括他们的妻子儿女），其中1400位来自英国，1000位来自美国，100位来自欧洲，主要是北欧国家[1]。到1920年代，新教的传教事业达到顶峰，之后由于中国内部的战争和动荡，情况不如以前。到1953年，所有在华新教传教士被驱逐出境。
Peter Parker, M.D.
伯驾（1804年6月18日－1888年1月10日），原名彼得·帕克（Peter Parker），美国麻省人，是美国早期来华传教士、医师、外交官。鸦片战争时期曾参与《望厦条约》的谈判，后担任过美国驻华公使。[1][2][3][4]
1831年伯驾在耶鲁大学获得学士学位，1834年获得医学博士学位，随后进入神学院，并得到传教于中国的委派。由于他卓越的医疗技术，伯驾成为第一位在华专职医疗传教士。因为广州十三行不允许外国人学习汉文，他先去新加坡学习了一段时间中文，然后于1835年11月份再度返回广州。他先在外国人驻地开了一间药房，开始为中国人看病，他主治的大部分是眼疾。后来他的药房扩展而成一家眼科医院，即博济医院，这家医院发展变成了今天著名的广东中山大学中山眼科中心。
1840年，第一次鸦片战争爆发，伯驾关闭了博济医院回到了美国，两年后他再一次回到中国，重开博济医院，并且增加了医院人手和扩大了规模。伯驾将西方医疗技术带到了中国，他医术精湛，被誉为“用柳叶刀（即手术刀）传福音”。
1844年，伯驾获得委任，参与《望厦条约》的谈判与签订。1847年，他担任美国驻华公使代办，1855年正式被委任为美国驻华公使。伯驾作为美国政府的代表，对华态度强硬，积极谋求扩大美国在华权益。伯驾有一句名言：“中国人不服从，就毁灭。”（Bend or Break）。第二次鸦片战争期间，曾呼吁美军与英军、法军分占舟山、台湾、朝鲜国。出于健康原因，伯驾于1855年回到美国。但于同年，他被委任为美国派华专员，负责修订《望厦条约》。伯驾在中国工作直到1857年，再一次由于健康原因卸任，回到美国。
此后，他常居华府，1888年去世。
相关事迹[编辑]
伯驾在大中华近代医学史上首创多项纪录，如割除扁桃腺（1836年）、割除膀胱结石（1844年）、使用乙醚麻醉（1847年）、采用氯彷麻醉方法（1848年）等[5]。
晚清知名外销画家关乔昌，为答谢博济医院免费收治华人，也为感谢伯驾收其侄子入读医校，在1836到1855年受伯驾委托，免费（仅一次画作有收报酬）绘制了一系列病患肖像，被用作医学生授课材料。而在旧日博济医院等候区，也挂有这些病人手术前后的画像，也可能用于鼓励病人[6]。
伯驾曾受中国林则徐便委托和袁得辉合译瑞士法学家艾默瑞奇·德·瓦特尔的著作《万国律例》，协助林则徐处理与英国的案件。
年表[编辑]
- 1804年出生于麻省的一个笃信基督教的家庭。
- 1831年毕业于耶鲁大学，随后进入神学院，期间得到中国传教的委派。
- 1834年获得医学博士学位，并获得牧师资格，同年到达广州。
- 1835年，伯驾在广州十三行内新豆栏街成立了广州眼科医局，被称为“新豆栏医局”，免费为病人治病，开始主要收治眼科名人。
- 1844年，作为美国特使的助手和翻译，参与《望厦条约》的谈判。
- 1847年成为美国政府驻华代办，与此同时，仍然坚持行医活动，直到1855年。
- 1855年，美国政府正式委任他为驻华全权公使。“新豆栏医局”移交给美北长老会的嘉约翰医生，1859年迁新址，改名为博济医院（Canton Hospital,PokTsai）。
- 1857年4月22日，驻华公使被列卫廉替代，回国，结束了外交官和传教生涯。
Peter Parker (June 18, 1804 – January 10, 1888) was an American physician and a missionary who introduced Western medical techniques into Qing DynastyChina. It was said that Parker "opened China to the gospel at the point of a lancet."
Portrait of Parker by Lam Qua
Early life[edit source]
Parker was born in Framingham, Massachusetts in 1804 to an orthodox Congregational family. His parents were farmers. Parker received a B.A. degree from Yale University in 1831, and his M.D. degree from the Yale Medical School, then called Medical Institution of Yale College, in 1834. In January 1834, he completed his theological studies at Yale and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister.[1]
China[edit source]
In February 1834, Parker traveled to Canton, where he had the distinction of being the first full-time Protestant medical missionary to China. In 1835, he opened in that city the Ophthalmic Hospital, which later became the Guangzhou Boji Hospital (the Canton Hospital). Parker specialized in diseases of the eye, including cataracts, and also resected tumors. Parker also introduced Western anesthesiain the form of sulphuric ether.
Although the hospital was intended particularly for the treatment of eye diseases, it was soon found impracticable to exclude patients suffering from other maladies. Over 2,000 patients were admitted the first year. Parker often preached to the patients, and trained several Chinese students in the arts of medicine and surgery, some of whom attained considerable skill.[2]
Merchant David Olyphant of Olyphant & Co. allowed Parker to use one of his warehouses as a hospital "so that patients could come and go without annoying foreigners by passing through their hongs, or excite the observations of natives by being seen to resort to a foreigner's house, rendered it most suitable for the purpose."[3]
In 1840, on the occurrence of hostilities between England and China, the hospital was closed, and Parker returned to the United States. Returning to China in 1842, he reopened the hospital, and it was thronged as before.[2] He served as president of the Medical Missionary Society of China after his mentor Thomas Richardson Colledge. Dr. John Glasgow Kerr followed Parker in running the Medical Missionary Society Hospital.
In 1844, Parker worked as Caleb Cushing's main interpreter during the negotiations of the Treaty of Wanghia with the Qing Empire. In 1845 he became a secretary and interpreter to the new embassy from the United States, still keeping the hospital in operation. In the absence of the minister, Parker acted as chargé d'affaires. In 1855, finding his health seriously impaired, he again returned to the United States.[2]
The 1844 treaty stipulated that it could be renegotiated after 12 years, and in 1856, president Franklin Pierce sent Parker to China in order to revise the treaty and gain more concessions from the Qing Empire. Parker was unsuccessful in this endeavor. He worked in this capacity until Pierce left office. In 1857, his health again failing, he returned to the United States.[2]
Lam Qua portraits[edit source]
While in China, Parker met Lam Qua, a Western-trained Chinese painter. Parker commissioned Lam Qua to paint patients at the Canton Hospital with large tumors or other major deformities. Some of the paintings are part of a collection of Lam Qua's work held by the Peter Parker Collection[4] at the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library at Yale University. Parker left these portraits to the Pathology Department of the Yale Medical School, which later gave them to the Library.
United States[edit source]
He became a regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1868, a corporate member of the American Board in 1871, and was a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance to Russia the same year to memorialize Tsar Alexander II in behalf of religious liberty in the Baltic provinces. He was president of the Washington branch of the Evangelical Alliance in 1887.[5] He died in Washington, D.C.[6]
Writings[edit source]
Among his publications were:[2][5][6][7]
- Reports of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton (Canton, 1836–52)
- Journal of an Expedition from Singapore to Japan, an account of his visit to the Loo Choo islands and Japan in 1837 (London, 1838)
- A Statement Respecting Hospitals in China (London, 1841)
- Notes of Surgical Practice Among the Chinese (1846)
- Eulogy on Henry Wilson (Washington, D. C., 1880)
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Born in Framingham, Massachusetts in 1804, Parker was the son of a devout Christian farming family. He attended Yale University, graduating with a BA in 1831, and remained there to study theology and medicine, earning his MD in 1834. In January of the same year, he was also ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in Philadelphia.
One month later, in February 1834, Parker sailed for the Canton region in southern China, now known as the province of Guangzhou. Parker specialised in treating eye diseases, particularly cataracts, and one year after his arrival he opened the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, as it was known in English. He also performed general surgical operations and the hospital soon started to cater for patients with other maladies. Parker and his small staff handled thousands of cases each year, treating more than 50,000 patients by the 1850s. He is also credited with introducing Western anaesthesia into China in the form of sulphuric ether.
Parker's surgical practice clearly tapped into a huge unmet need. In a series of talks to the Boston Medical Association in April 1841 he described the huge lack of medical and surgical knowledge in China. He had observed a man with his finger inserted into a live frog as a cure for a whitlow on the fingernail, and watched air being blown into the rectum of a drowned child in an attempt at resuscitation.[2]
Leading the way
In the early phase of medical missionary work, some missionaries studied medicine before going into the field to equip themselves better for living life in a remote area. For example, after earning his degree in theology, David Livingtone, the Scottish missionary and explorer of the Victorian era, studied medicine as part of his mission training. Similarly, Hudson Taylor, who was also a doctor, saw medical missions in similar terms.[3] However, Parker strongly believed that his clinical work could be the 'handmaid of religious truth'. Medicine and preaching were equally important to him and, although he held regular religious services for his patients, his hospital in Canton offered free treatment for both rich and poor. Through this he fostered tremendous goodwill amongst the local community.[4]
The Ophthalmic Hospital became the model for other medical missions around the world and, along with his colleague Dr T Colledge, Parker founded the Medical Missionary Society of Canton in 1838. The aim of the organisation was to co-ordinate the efforts of all the western hospitals springing up in the trading ports of Asia, including the small eye hospital opened by Colledge, who was a Christian working for the East India Company. By increasing the availability of free medical care for the poorest in society, Parker hoped to 'open China for the gospel with the lancet'.[5]
Peter Parker also stimulated colleagues in Britain, Scotland, and the United States to become supportive of medical mission work, and he was instrumental in founding the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society.[6] At the same time, Parker and Colledge also established the first modern medical education programme in China.
Parker travelled extensively in China but was forced to flee the country temporarily in 1840 to escape the hostilities of the Opium Wars between Great Britain and China. During this time he returned to the United States to raise funds for his work. He spoke to many religious societies, a few medical bodies, and even the United States Congress, where he preached to members of the House and Senate and lobbied legislators on the need for diplomatic relations with China.
Consequently, shortly after his return to China in 1842, he became secretary to the United States embassy and occasionally acted as charge d'affaires in the absence of the United States minister. In 1855 he was appointed commissioner at the request of the US government, a position he held until 1857, when he finally returned to the US.
Because of the relative absence of modern surgical techniques in China, Parker found himself operating on a number of patients afflicted with tumours that had been growing for as many as 30 years, resulting in major deformities. He commissioned Lam Qua, a Chinese artist, to paint the most significant cases pre-operatively. In the absence of contemporary techniques such as medical photography, they provided state of the art visual aids and, together with Parker's notes recorded in his personal journals, the portraits provide an important insight into the extent of surgical pathology in the mid-1800s, as well as the relative brutality of surgical techniques at the time.[7] Lam Qua, who became highly regarded for his skills as a portrait painter, had studied with George Chinnery, the first English painter to settle in China, and was the first Chinese portrait painter to be exhibited in the West.
His legacy
Peter Parker died in the United States in 1888, at the age of 83. On his death, Parker left the portrait collection to the Pathology Department of the Yale Medical School. They were later given to the Yale University Library where they are still held by the Peter Parker Collection at the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library.[8]
As well as his important role in the fostering of diplomatic relations between the US and China, he played a crucial role in the development of western surgical techniques in the country, as well as making a major contribution to medical art. His dedication to the people of China, and innovative approach to using medicine as a tool for the gospel, played a crucial role in developing contemporary modern mission, as well as helping to lay the foundations for the gospel work that has gone in China in recent years.
Further Reading
- www.med.yale.edu
/library /historical /parker.html - the Peter Parker collection online - Gulick E. Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1973
References
- http:
/ /en.wikipedia.org /wiki /Peter_Parker_(physician) - Rachman S. Curiosity and Cure: Peter Parker's patients, Lam Qua's portraits. www.common-place.org 2004; 4(2)
- VanReken D. Mission and Ministry: Christian Medical Practice in Today's Changing Culture. http:
/ /bgc.gospelcom.net /emis /vrekenmono /vreken1.htm - Rachman S. Op cit
- VanReken D. Op cit
- Chang J. A reconstructive surgeon's taste in art: Dr Peter Parker and the Lam Qua oil paintings. Ann Plast Surg 1993;30(5):468-74]
- EMMS was founded in 1841 and is now a part of EMMS International (www.emms.org)
- www.med.yale.edu
/library /subjects /parker /
https://www.cmf.org.uk/resources/publications/content/?context=article&id=1801
http://www.internationalbulletin.org/issues/2013-03/2013-03-152-anderson.html
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1907年彭福從汝南教會學校畢業後，得施牧師之助，得以進入漢口博習書院(Griffith John College)深造。該書院為倫敦宣道會所辦，規模宏大，師資力量雄厚。但不久，因思鄉心切，年輕氣盛的彭福，不服施牧師對他的勸誡，竟負氣離校出走。寬厚仁愛的施牧師將其尋回，複送他到湖北老河口聖經學校就讀。二年後（1909年）從該校順利畢業。之後，他回到家鄉汝南教會擔任傳道，與施道格牧師一起工作。除了牧養和培訓等事工外，他還經常到四周鄉村去開荒佈道，建立教會。此外，他還與施牧師一道，創辦了汝南第一所西醫院，醫病救人，深受百姓歡迎。繁忙的工作使他在各方面日趨成熟，經驗也更為豐富。他在汝南教會事奉達四年之久（1909-1913）。
