多族裔的美国人2010年占人口2.9%，通婚熔炉？

Interracial marriage in the United States has been fully legal in all U.S. states since the 1967 Supreme Court decision that deemed anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional, with many states choosing to legalize interracial marriage at much earlier dates. Multiracial Americans numbered 9.0 million in 2010, or 2.9% of the total population, but 5.6% of the population under age 18.^[1]

Cultural background

The differing ages of individuals, culminating in the generation divides, have traditionally played a large role in how mixed ethnic couples are perceived in American society. Interracial marriages have typically been highlighted through two points of view in the United States: Egalitarianism and Cultural conservatism.^[2] Egalitarianism's view of interracial marriage is acceptance of the phenomenon, while traditionalists view interracial marriage as taboo and as socially unacceptable.^[3] Egalitarian viewpoints typically are held by younger generations, however older generations have an inherent influence on the views of the younger.^[4] Gurung & Duong (1999) compiled a study relating to mixed-ethnic relationships ("MER"s) and same-ethnic relationships ("SER"s), concluding that individuals part of "MER"s generally do not view themselves differently from same-ethnic couples.^[5]

In Social Trends in America and Strategic Approaches to the Negro Problem (1948), Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal ranked the social areas where restrictions were imposed on the freedom of Black Americans by Southern White Americans through racial segregation, from the least to the most important: basic public facility access, social equality, jobs, courts and police, politics and marriage. This ranking scheme illustrates the manner in which the barriers against desegregation fell: Of less importance was the segregation in basic public facilities, which was abolished with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The most tenacious form of legal segregation, the banning of interracial marriage, was not fully lifted until the last anti-miscegenation laws were struck down in 1967 by the Supreme Court ruling in the landmark Loving v. Virginia case.

Social enterprise research conducted on behalf of the Columbia Business School (2005–2007) showed that regional differences within the United States in how interracial relationships are perceived have persisted: Daters of both sexes from south of the Mason-Dixon Line were found to have much stronger same-race preferences than northern daters did.^[6] The study also observed a clear gender divide in racial preference with regards to marriage: Women of all the races which were studied revealed a strong preference for men of their own race for marriage, with the caveat that East Asian women only discriminated against Black and Hispanic men, and not against White men.^[6] A woman's race was found to have no effect on the men's choices.^[6]

Socio-economic background

Several studies have found that a factor which significantly affects an individual's choices with regards to marriage is socio-economic status ("SES")-- the measure of a person's income, education, social class, profession, etc. For example, a study by the Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Newcastle University confirmed that women show a tendency to marry up in socio-economic status; this reduces the probability of marriage of low SES men.^[7]

Research at the universities of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) and Texas A&M addressing the topic of socio-economic status, among other factors, showed that none of the socio-economic status variables appeared to be positively related to outmarriage within the Asian American community, and found lower-SES Asians sometimes utilized outmarriage to Whites as a means to advance social status.^[8]

Marital instability among interracial and same-race couples

A 2008 study by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King conducted on behalf of the Education Resources Information Center examined whether crossing racial boundaries increased the risk of divorce.^[9] Using the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth (Cycle VI), the likelihood of divorce for interracial couples to that of same-race couples was compared. Comparisons across marriage cohorts revealed that, overall, interracial couples have higher rates of divorce, particularly for those that married during the late 1980s.^[9] The authors found that gender plays a significant role in interracial divorce dynamics: According to the adjusted models predicting divorce as of the 10th year of marriage, interracial marriages that are the most vulnerable involve White females and non-White males (with the exception of White females/Hispanic White males) relative to White/White couples.^[9] White wife/Black hu*****and marriages are twice as likely to divorce by the 10th year of marriage compared to White/White couples, while White wife/Asian hu*****and marriages are 59% more likely to end in divorce compared to White/White unions.^[9] Conversely, White men/non-White women couples show either very little or no differences in divorce rates.^[9] Asian wife/White hu*****and marriages show only 4% greater likelihood of divorce by the 10th year of marriage than White/White couples.^[9] In the case of Black wife/White hu*****and marriages, divorce by the 10th year of marriage is 44% less likely than among White/White unions.^[9] Intermarriages that did not cross a racial barrier, which was the case for White/Hispanic White couples, showed statistically similar likelihoods of divorcing as White/White marriages.^[9]

Census Bureau statistics

The number of interracial marriages has steadily continued to increase since the 1967 Supreme Court ruling in Loving v. Virginia, but also continues to represent an absolute minority among the total number of wed couples. According to the United States Census Bureau, the number of interrracially married couples has increased from 310,000 in 1970 to 651,000 in 1980, to 964,000 in 1990, to 1,464,000 in 2000 and to 2,340,000 in 2008; accounting for 0.7%, 1.3%, 1.8%, 2.6% and 3.9% of the total number of married couples in those years, respectively.^[10] These statistics do not take into account the mixing of ancestries within the same "race"; e.g. a marriage involving Indian and Japanese ancestries would not be classified as interracial due to the Census regarding both as the same category. Likewise, since Hispanic is not a race but an ethnicity, Hispanic marriages with non-Hispanics are not registered as interracial if both partners are of the same race (i.e. a Black Hispanic marrying a non-Hispanic Black partner).

Married couples in the United States in 2010 (thousands)^[11]

	White Wife	Black Wife	Asian Wife	Other Wife
White Hu*****and	50,410	168	529	487
Black Hu*****and	390	4,072	39	66
Asian Hu*****and	219	9	2,855	28
Other Hu*****and	488	18	37	568

Based on these figures:

• White Americans were statistically the least likely to wed interracially, though in absolute terms they were involved in interracial marriages more than any other racial group due to their demographic majority. 2.1% of married White women and 2.3% of married White men had a non-White spouse. 1.0% of all married White men were married to an Asian American woman, and 1.0% of married White women were married to a man classified as "other".
• 4.6% of married Black American women and 10.8% of married Black American men had a non-Black spouse. 8.5% of married Black men and 3.9% of married Black women had a White spouse. 0.2% of married Black women were married to Asian American men, representing the least prevalent marital combination.
• There is a notable disparity in the rates of exogamy by Asian American males and females. Of all Asian American/White marriages, only 29% involved an Asian American male and a White female, and of all Asian American/Black marriages only 19% involved an Asian American male and a Black female. 17.5% of married Asian American women and 8.2% of married Asian American men had a non-Asian American spouse.

In 2006, 88% of foreign-born White Hispanic males were married to White Hispanic females. In terms of out-marriage, Hispanic males who identified as White had non-Hispanic wives more often than other Hispanic men.

2008 Pew Research Center Report (U.S. Census Bureau’s 2008 American Community Survey)

The study found that in 2008:^[12]

• A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. This compares to 8.0% of all current marriages regardless of when they occurred. This includes marriages between a Hispanic and non-Hispanic (Hispanics are an ethnic group, not a race) as well as marriages between spouses of different races – be they white, black, Asian, American Indian or those who identify as being of multiple races or some other race.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, 9% of whites, 16% of blacks, 26% of Hispanics and 31% of Asians married someone whose race or ethnicity was different from their own.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, intermarried pairings were primarily White-Hispanic (41%) as compared to White-Asian (15%), White-Black (11%), and Other Combinations (33%). Other combinations consists of pairings between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, Native-Born Hispanics and Asians were far more likely to intermarry than Foreign-Born Hispanics and Asians: 41.3% of Native-Born Hispanic men out-married compared to 11.3% of Foreign-Born Hispanic men; 37.4% of Native-Born Hispanic women out-married compared to 12.2% of Foreign-Born Hispanic women; 41.7% of Native-Born Asian men out-married compared to 11.7% of Foreign-Born Asian men; 50.8% of Native-Born Asian women out-married compared to 36.8% of Foreign-Born Asian women. Foreign-Born excludes immigrants who arrived married.
• Gender patterns in intermarriage vary widely. Some 22% of all black male newlyweds in 2008 married outside their race, compared with just 9% of black female newlyweds. Among Asians, the gender pattern runs the other way. Some 40% of Asian female newlyweds married outside their race in 2008, compared with just 20% of Asian male newlyweds. Among whites and Hispanics, by contrast, there are no gender differences in intermarriage rates.
• Rates of intermarriages among newlyweds in the U.S. more than doubled between 1980 (6.7%) and 2008 (14.6%). However, different groups experienced different trends. Rates more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks. But for both Hispanics and Asians, rates were nearly identical in 2008 and 1980.
• These seemingly contradictory trends were driven by the heavy, ongoing Hispanic and Asian immigration wave of the past four decades. For whites and blacks, these immigrants (and, increasingly, their U.S.-born children who are now of marrying age) have enlarged the pool of potential spouses for out-marriage. But for Hispanics and Asians, the ongoing immigration wave has also enlarged the pool of potential partners for in-group marriage.
• There is a strong regional pattern to intermarriage. Among all new marriages in 2008, 22% in the West were interracial or interethnic, compared with 13% in both the South and Northeast and 11% in the Midwest.
• Most Americans say they approve of racial or ethnic intermarriage – not just in the abstract, but in their own families. More than six-in-ten say it would be fine with them if a family member told them they were going to marry someone from any of three major race/ethnic groups other than their own.
• More than a third of adults (35%) say they have a family member who is married to someone of a different race. Blacks say this at higher rates than do whites; younger adults at higher rates than older adults; and Westerners at higher rates than people living in other regions of the country.^[13]

Interracial marriage by pairing

Asian and White

An Asian bride and White groom at their wedding (2004)

Marriages between White Americans and Asian Americans are increasingly common for both genders in the United States.^[14]

In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a White spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a White spouse.^[15] Asian Americans of both genders who are U.S.-raised are much more likely to be married to Whites than their non-U.S.-raised counterparts.^[16] A 1998 Washington Post article states 36% of young Asian Pacific American men born in the United States married White women, and 45% of U.S.-born Asian Pacific American women took White hu*****ands during the year of publication.^[17]

According to social studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King gender plays a significant role in interracial dynamics.^[9] White wife/Asian hu*****and couples are 59% more likely to divorce by the 10th year of marriage than White wife/White hu*****and couples, whereas Asian wife/White hu*****and couples show only 4% greater likelihood of divorce than White wife/White hu*****and couples over the same period.^[9] Social enterprise research by the Columbia Business School (2005–2007) concluded that while East Asian women statistically prefer East Asian men for marriage, they show no discrimination against White men, causing Asian women/White men pairings to consistently become the prevalent form of interracial dating & marriage in the United States.^[6]

Anti-miscegenation laws discouraging marriages between Whites and non-Whites were affecting Asian immigrants and their spouses from the late 17th to early 20th century. By 1910, 28 states prohibited certain forms of interracial marriage. Seven states including Arizona, California, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Utah extended their prohibitions to include people of Asian descent. The laws of Arizona, California, Mississippi, and Utah referred to "Mongolians". Asians in California were barred by anti-miscegenation laws from marrying White Americans (a group including Hispanic Americans). Nevada and Oregon referred to "Chinese," while Montana listed both "Chinese" and "Japanese" persons.^[18] For example, a Eurasian daughter born to an Indian father and Irish mother in Maryland in 1680 was classified as a "mulato" and sold into slavery,^[19] and the Bengali revolutionary Tarak Nath Das's white American wife, Mary K. Das, was stripped of her American citizenship for her marriage to an "alien ineligible for citizenship."^[19] In 1918, there was controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer married the sixteen year-old daughter of one of his White tenants.^[20] California law did not explicitly bar Filipinos and whites from marrying, a fact brought to wide public attention by the 1933 California Supreme Court case Roldan v. Los Angeles County; however the legislature quickly moved to amend the laws to prohibit such marriages as well in the aftermath of the case.^[21][22]

Black and White

Robert De Niro and his wife Grace Hightower at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival.

In the United States there has been an historical disparity between Black female and Black male exogamy ratios: according to the United States Census Bureau, there were 354,000 White female/Black male and 196,000 Black female/White male marriages in March 2009, representing a ratio of 181:100.^[23] This traditional disparity has steadily declined over the last two decades, having seen its peak in 1981 with a ratio of 371:100.^[24] In 2007, 4.6% of all married Blacks in the United States were wed to a White partner, and 0.4% of all Whites were married to a Black partner.^[25]

The role of gender in interracial dynamics, found in social studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King, was highlighted when examining marital instability among Black/White unions.^[9] White wife/Black hu*****and marriages show twice the divorce rate of White wife/White hu*****and couples by the 10th year of marriage,^[9] whereas Black wife/White hu*****and marriages are 44% less likely to end in divorce than White wife/White hu*****and couples.^[9]

Native American and Asian

Filipino Americans have frequently married Native American and Alaskan Native people. In the 17th century, when Filipinos were under Spanish rule, the Spanish colonists ensured a Filipino trade between the Philippines and the Americas. When the Mexicans revolted against the Spanish, the Filipinos first escaped into Mexico, then traveled to Louisiana, where the exclusively male Filipinos married Native American women. In the 1920s, Filipino American communities of workers also grew in Alaska, and Filipino American men married Alaskan Native women.^[26] On the west coast, Filipino Americans married Native American women in Bainbridge Island, Washington.^[26]

Asian and Black

With African Americans and Asian Americans, the ratios are even further imbalanced, with roughly five times more Asian female/African male marriages than Asian male/African female marriages.^[27] However, C.N. Le estimated that among Asian Americans of the 1.5 generation and of the five largest Asian American ethnic groups this ratio narrows to approximately two to one.^[16] Even though the disparity between African American and Asian American interracial marriages by gender is high according to the 2000 US Census,^[27] the total numbers of Asian American/African American interracial marriages are low, numbering only 0.22% percent for Asian American male marriages and 1.30% percent of Asian female marriages, partially contributed by the recent flux of Asian immigrants.

Historically, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly Arkansas, to work on plantations. The tenth US Census of Louisiana counted 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese Americans to be with African Americans and 43% to be with European American women. After the Chinese Exclusion Act, Chinese American men had fewer potential ethnically Chinese wives, so they increasingly married African American women on the West Coast.^[28]. In Jamaica and other Caribbean nations as well many Chinese males over past generations took up African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the African Caribbean community or the overall mixed-race community.

Native American and White

The interracial disparity between genders among Native Americans is low. According to the 1990 US Census (which only counts indigenous people with US-government-recognized tribal affiliation), Native American women intermarried European American men 2% more than Native American men married European American women.^[29] Historically in Latin America, and to a lesser degree in the United States, Native Americans have married out at a high rate. Many countries in Latin America have large Mestizo populations; in many cases, mestizos are the largest ethnic group in their respective countries.

Native American and Black

Further information: Black Indians

In the United States, interracial unions between Native Americans and African Americans has also existed throughout the 16th through early 20th century resulting in some African Americans having Native American heritage.

Marriage squeeze

Main article: Marriage squeeze

A term has arisen to describe the social phenomenon of the so-called "marriage squeeze" for African American females.^[30] The "marriage squeeze" refers to the perception that the most "eligible" and "desirable" African American men are marrying non-African American women at a higher rate, leaving African American women who wish to marry African American men with fewer partnering options. According to Newsweek, 43% of African American women between the ages of 30 and 34 have never been married. This figure is similar to the percentage of unmarried women of other races except white females.^[31] Several explanations of this phenomenon have been advanced by sociologists. It may be in part due to the still lingering effects of social ostracism, to which Caucasian American men who married African American women were heavily subjected in the past.^{[citation needed]} It may also be the result of a desire among African American women to marry African American men due to concepts such as racial loyalty. In recent times, however, many African American women have expressed a desire and openness to marriage with non-African American men.

Education and interracial marriage

Using PUMS data from both the 1980 and 1990 US Census to determine trends within interracial marriage among Caucasian Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans, it may be seen that endogamy (marrying within race) was more prevalent for African American men at lower education levels.^{[citation needed]} In 1980, the numbers were as follows: African American males without a high-school diploma participated in endogamy at 96.5%; for those who received a high-school diploma, 95.6%; for those with a college degree and above, the percentage of endogamy were 94.0%.^{[citation needed]} Therefore, the total change in percentage among African American men with a college degree was merely 2.5%.^{[citation needed]} The rates for African American women changed very little with different educational levels. For the African American woman who had not received a high school diploma the rate was 98.7%, high school diploma was 98.6%, with some college it was 98.2%, and college degree or higher, 98.5%.^{[citation needed]} During this time there was a significant increase in marriages between Caucasians and African Americans, maintaining that African Americans are most likely to marry Caucasians over other groups. .^{[citation needed]}

The 1990 results show that rates of endogamy dropped for both males and females, albeit more for the African American male.^{[citation needed]} In 1990, an African American male with a college degree and more was participating in endogamy at 90.4%; for an African American female with the same educational level, 96.4%.^{[citation needed]} The results for the propensity of individuals at higher educational attainment levels to participate less in endogamy over the 10-year period were similar across races, including Caucasians, Hispanics, and Asian Americans.^{[citation needed]}

Immigrants and interracial marriage

Racial endogamy is significantly stronger among recent immigrants.^[32] This result holds for all racial groups, with the strongest endogamy found among immigrants of African descent.^[32] Interestingly, the gender differences in interracial marriage change significantly when the non-white partner is an immigrant. For instance, female immigrants of African descent are more likely to marry U.S.-born Caucasians than are their male counterparts. ^[32]

Interracial marriage versus cohabitation

In the United States, rates of interracial cohabitation are significantly higher than those of marriage. Although only 7 percent of married African American men have Caucasian American wives, 12.5 percent of cohabitating African American men have Caucasian American partners. 25 percent of married Asian American women have Caucasian spouses, but 45 percent of cohabitating Asian American women are with Caucasian American men—higher than the percentage cohabitating with Asian men (less than 43 percent). Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37 percent of Asian men have white female partners.^[33][34] These numbers suggest that the prevalence of intimate interracial contact is greatly underestimated when one focuses only on marriage data.^[34]

See also

• Multiracial American
• Race (United States Census)

References

1. ^ Against 2,1% of the population aged 18 and over. 2010 US Census: "Population by Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin, for All Ages and for 18 Years and Over, for the United States: 2000 and 2010"
2. ^ Dunleavy, V.O. (1999) Examining interracial marriage attitudes as value expressive. The Howard Journal of Communications, 15 [1]
3. ^ Knox, D., Zusman, M., Buffington, C., & Hemphill, G. (2000). Interracial dating attitudes among college students. College Student Journal, 34
4. ^ Firmin, M., & Firebaugh, S. (2008). Historical analysis of college campus interracial dating. College Student Journal, 42.[2]
5. ^ Gurung, R., & Duong, T. (1999). Mixing and matching: Assessing the concomitants of mixed ethnic relationships. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 16.[3]
6. ^ ^{a b c d} Fishman, Ray (2007-11-07). "An economist solves the mysteries of dating". Slate magazine. http://www.slate.com/id/2177637/nav/tap3/. Retrieved 2009-01-18. 
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8. ^ Hwang, Sean-Shong; Saenz, Rogelio and Aguirre, Benigno E. Structural and Individual Determinants of Outmarriage among Chinese-, Filipino-, and Japanese-Americans in California, Sociological Inquiry, Vol.64, No.2, Nov. 1994, pp. 396-414, and Structural and Assimilationist Explanations of Asian American Intermarriage, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 59, No. 3, Aug. 1997, pp. 758-772.
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13. ^ Pew Social Trends: "Marrying Out" June 15, 2010
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18. ^ http://academic.udayton.edu/race/01race/aspi02.htm Asian Americans and Anti-miscegenation Statutes
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22. ^ Min, Pyong-Gap (2006), Asian Americans: contemporary trends and issues, Pine Forge Press, p. 189, ISBN 9781412905565 
23. ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census “Table 60. Married Couples by Race and Hispanic Origin of Spouses”, 15 Dec. 2010 (Excel table)
24. ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census “Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1982-83”, 1983. Section 1: Population, file 1982-02.pdf, 170 pp.
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30. ^ Crowder, Kyle D.; Tolnay, Stewart E. (August 2000). "A New Marriage Squeeze for Black Women: The Role of Racial Intermarriage by Black Men". Journal of Marriage and the Family (Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations) 62 (3): 792–80. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00792.x. OCLC 49976459. http://web.mit.edu/theresae/Public/UROP/IntermarriagePDF%27s/intermarriage7.pdf. Retrieved 25 October 2009. ^{[dead link]}
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34. ^ ^{a b} Swanbrow, Diane (2000-03-23). "Intimate Relationships Between Races More Common Than Thought". University of Michigan. http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2000/Mar00/r032300a. Retrieved 2008-07-15.