phymath01 Models are metaphors.模型的隐喻。 They allow us to see one t

传播学模型西方范式的通信模型 (2010-12-02 08:38:06) （2010-12-02 8时38分06秒）

标签： 标签： 传播学 传播学 模型 模型 西方范式 西方范式 危机传播 危机传播 crisis 危机 communication 通讯 model 模型 linear 线性 杂谈 杂谈

Although adapted and updated, much of the information in this lecture is derived from C. David Mortensen,虽然调整和更新，在此讲学的信息是派生C.大卫莫特森的， Communication: The Study of Human Communication 通讯：人类传播的研究 (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972), Chapter 2, “Communication Models.” （纽约：McGraw - Hill出版公司，1972年），第2章，“沟通模式。”

A. A。 What is a Model? 是什么型号？

1. 1。 Mortensen: “In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract form.莫特森：“从广义上讲，一个模型是一个理想化和抽象的形式中的对象或事件的系统表示。 Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature.模型是有点乱，就其性质。 The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors.抽象的行为，消除了某些细节，把重点放在重要因素。 . 。 . 。 . 。 The key to the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms--in point-by-point correspondence--to the underlying determinants of communicative behavior.”模型的实用性，关键是它符合的程度 - 逐点对应 - 交际行为的基本决定因素“。

2. 2。 “Communication models are merely pictures; they're even distorting pictures, because they stop or freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transactive process into a static picture.” “通信模型只是图片;他们甚至扭曲的图片，因为他们停止或冻结成静态图片基本上是动态交互式或transactive过程。”

3. 3。 Models are metaphors.模型的隐喻。 They allow us to see one thing in terms of another.他们让我们看到了另一个方面的一件事情。

B. B。 The Advantages of Models 模型的优点

1. 1。 They should allow us to ask questions. 他们应该让我们发问。

Mortensen: “A good model is useful, then, in providing both general perspective and particular vantage points from which to ask questions and to interpret the raw stuff of observation.莫特森：“一个很好的模型是有用的，然后，在提供一般的角度和特定的角度，从中提出问题，并解释观察的原始材料。 The more complex the subject matter—the more amorphous and elusive the natural boundaries—the greater are the potential rewards of model building.”更复杂的题材，更无定形和难以捉摸的自然边界越大，是建立模型的潜在回报。“

2. 2。 They should clarify complexity. 他们应该澄清的复杂性。

Models also clarify the structure of complex events.模型还澄清复杂的事件结构。 They do this, as Chapanis (1961) noted, by reducing complexity to simpler, more familiar terms.他们这样做，因为Chapanis（1961）指出，通过减少复杂性，更简单，更熟悉的术语。 . 。 . 。 Thus, the aim of a model is not to ignore complexity or to explain it away, but rather to give it order and coherence.因此，模型的目的是不能忽视的复杂性或解释它扔掉，而是给它的秩序和连贯性。

3. 3。 They should lead us to new discoveries-most important, according to Mortensen. 他们应该促使我们以新的发现，最重要的，根据莫特森。

At another level models have heuristic value; that is, they provide new ways to conceive of hypothetical ideas and relationships.在另一个层面上的型号有启发式的价值，也就是说，他们设想假设的思想和关系提供了新的途径。 This may well be their most important function.这可能是他们最重要的功能。 With the aid of a good model, suddenly we are jarred from conventional modes of thought.有了一个好的模型的援助，我们突然震动，从传统的思想模式。 . 。 . 。 . 。 Ideally, any model, even when studied casually, should offer new insights and culminate in what can only be described as an “Aha!” experience.在理想的情况下，任何模型，即使随便研究，应该提供新的见解，只能作为一个“啊哈！”的经验介绍和高潮。

C. C。 Limitations of Models 模型的限制

1. 1。 Can lead to oversimplifications. 可导致过于简单化。

“There is no denying that much of the work in designing communication models illustrates the oft-repeated charge that anything in human affairs which can be modeled is by definition too superficial to be given serious consideration.” “无可否认，在设计通信模型说明了经常反复充电，可以仿照人类事务的任何定义过于肤浅认真考虑的工作了。”

Some, like Duhem's (1954), believe there is no value in models at all:有些人喜欢迪昂（1954），相信这是在模型中没有价值可言：

We can guard against the risks of oversimplification by recognizing the fundamental distinction between simplification and oversimplification.我们可以防止过于简单化的风险，认识到简化和简单化之间的根本区别。 By definition, and of necessity, models simplify.通过定义和必要性，模型简化。 So do all comparisons.所以做比较。 As Kaplan (1964) noted, “Science always simplifies; its aim is not to reproduce the reality in all its complexity, but only to formulate what is essential for understanding, prediction, or control.正如卡普兰（1964）指出，“科学总是简化，其目的是重现其复杂性的现实，但只制订什么是必要的理解，预测，或控制的。 That a model is simpler than the subject-matter being inquired into is as much a virtue as a fault, and is, in any case, inevitable [p.一个模型比标的物，被询问到尽可能多的是作为凭借故障，简单的，在任何情况下，，必然[第 280].” So the real question is what gets simplified. 280]“，因此真正的问题是得到简化。 Insofar as a model ignores crucial variables and recurrent relationships, it is open to the charge of oversimplification.就作为模型忽略了关键的变量和经常性的关系，它是开放的过于简单化的收费。 If the essential attributes or particulars of the event are included, the model is to be credited with the virtue of parsimony, which insists-where everything is equal-that the simplest of two interpretations is superior.如果本质属性或事件的详情，都包括在内，该模型计入凭借简约，坚持一切平等，最简单的两种解释优越。 Simplification, after all, is inherent in the act of abstracting.简化，毕竟是固有的抽象行为。 For example, an ordinary orange has a vast number of potential attributes; it is necessary to consider only a few when one decides to eat an orange, but many more must be taken into account when one wants to capture the essence of an orange in a prize-winning photograph.例如，一个普通的橙色有一个广大的潜在属性;只有少数，当一个人决定吃一个橘子，有必要考虑，但更多的人必须考虑到，当一个人想捕捉在一个橙色的本质获奖照片。 abstracting.抽象。 For example, an ordinary orange has a vast number of potential attributes; it is necessary to consider only a few when one decides to eat an orange, but many more must be taken into account when one wants to capture the essence of an orange in a prize-winning photograph.例如，一个普通的橙色有一个广大的潜在属性;只有少数，当一个人决定吃一个橘子，有必要考虑，但更多的人必须考虑到，当一个人想捕捉在一个橙色的本质获奖照片。

Models can miss important points of comparison.模型可以错过比较重要的点。 Chapanis (1961), “A model can tolerate a considerable amount of slop [p. Chapanis（1961年），“一个模式可以容忍大量的污水[第 118].” 118]。“

2. 2。 Can lead of a confusion of the model between the behavior it portrays 能带领一个模型之间的行为，它描绘的混乱

Mortensen: “Critics also charge that models are readily confused with reality.莫特森：“批评者还收费模式很容易与现实混淆。 The problem typically begins with an initial exploration of some unknown territory.这个问题通常开始与一些未知领域的初步的探索。 . 。 . 。 .Then the model begins to function as a substitute for the event: in short, the map is taken literally.模型开始，然后作为替代事件功能：总之，地图是从字面上理解。 And what is worse, another form of ambiguity is substituted for the uncertainty the map was designed to minimize.而更糟糕的是，另一种形式的模糊性取代的地图设计，以尽量减少不确定性。 What has happened is a sophisticated version of the general semanticist's admonition that “the map is not the territory.”发生了什么事，是一个复杂的版本一般semanticist的告诫，“地图不是领土。” Spain西班牙 is not pink because it appears that way on the map, and是不是粉红色的的，因为它出现在地图上的方式，并 Minnesota明尼苏达州 is not up because it is located near the top of a不起来，因为它是位于附近的一个顶部 United States美国 map.地图。

“The proper antidote lies in acquiring skill in the art of map reading.”收购地图阅读的艺术技巧“在于适当的解毒剂。”

3. 3。 Premature Closure 提前结束

The model designer may escape the risks of oversimplification and map reading and still fall prey to dangers inherent in abstraction.模型设计者可能逃脱的简单化和地图阅读的风险和仍然堕入危险所固有的抽象物。 To press for closure is to strive for a sense of completion in a system.按封闭的，是要争取在一个系统中完成的感。

Kaplan (1964):卡普兰（1964）：

The danger is that the model limits our awareness of unexplored possibilities of conceptualization.危险的是，模型限制了我们的概念化的未开发的可能性的认识。 We tinker with the model when we might be better occupied with the subject-matter itself.我们修改模型时，我们可能会更好地与标的​​物本身的被占领。 In many areas of human behavior, our knowledge is on the level of folk wisdom ...在人类行为的许多领域，我们的知识是对民间智慧的水平... ... incorporating it in a model does not automatically give such knowledge scientific status.纳入一个模式，它不会自动给这种科学知识的地位。 The majority of our ideas is usually a matter of slow growth, which cannot be forced....大多数我们的想法通常是一个增长缓慢的问题，不能强迫.... Closure is premature if it lays down the lines for our thinking to follow when we do not know enough to say even whether one direction or another is the more promising.封闭是不成熟的，如果它规定了我们的思维线，遵循时，我们不知道足够说，甚至是否一个方向或另一个更有前途的。 Building a model, in short, may crystallize our thoughts at a stage when they are better left in solution, to allow new compounds to precipitate [p.大厦模型，在短期，可能结晶在我们的想法时，他们是更好的解决方案左阶段，允许新的化合物沉淀[第 279]. 279]。

One can reduce the hazards only by recognizing that physical reality can be represented in any number of ways.只有承认，物理的现实，可以在任意数量的方式代表，一方面可以减少危害。

D. D。 Classical Communication Models 古典通信模型

1. 1。 Aristotle's definition of rhetoric . 亚里士多德修辞学的定义 。 Ehninger, Gronbeck and Ehninger，Gronbeck和 Monroe: One of the earliest definitions of communication came from the Greek philosopher-teacher Aristotle (384-322 BC).梦露：通信最早的定义之一，从教师希腊哲学家亚里士多德（公元前384-322）。

a. A. “Rhetoric” is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” ( Rhetoric “修辞学”，“教师在任何情况下观察可利用的手段说服”（ 修辞 1335b). 1335b）。

b. B. Aristotle's speaker-centered model received perhaps its fullest development in the hands of Roman educator Quintilian (ca. 35-95 AD), whose收到亚里士多德的扬声器为中心的模式也许在罗马教育家昆体良（约35-95年），其手中的充分发展 Institutio Oratoria Institutio Oratoria was filled with advice on the full training of a “good” speaker-statesman.充满了意见上的一个“好”的扬声器，政治家的全员培训。

2. 2。 Aristotle's model of proof . 亚里士多德的模型证明 。 Kinnevay also sees a model of communication in Aristotle's description of proof: Kinnevay还认为，在亚里士多德的举证描述的沟通模式：

a. A. Logos, inheres in the content or the message itself标志，inheres的内容或消息本身

b. B. Pathos, inheres in the audience悲怆，观众inheres

c. C. Ethos, inheres in the speaker校风，在扬声器inheres

3. 3。 Bitzer's Rhetorical Situation. 比泽尔的修辞形势。 Lloyd Bitzer developed described the “Rhetorical Situation,” which, while not a model, identifies some of the classical components of a communication situation (“The Rhetorical Situation,” Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1 (Winter, 1968):1-15.).劳埃德比泽尔开发描述的“修辞学的现状，”，而不是一个模式，确定了一个沟通的情况古典组件（“修辞形势，”哲学与修辞，1（冬，1968年）:1 - 15。） 。

Bitzer defines the “rhetorical situation” as “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action so as to bring about significant modification of the exigence.”比泽尔定义为“一个复杂的人，事件，对象，并提出一个实际的或潜在exigence的可完全或部分切除介绍，入情的话语，因此可以限制人的决定或行动，以便的关系的”修辞情况“带来显著的exigence修改。“

See more of Bitzer's approach here. 比泽尔的方法在这里 。

E. E。 Early Linear Models 早期的线性模型

1. 1。 The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model, 1949 香农-韦弗的数学模型，1949年

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Claude Shannon, an engineer for the Bell Telephone Company, designed the most influential of all early communication models.克劳德香农，贝尔电话公司的工程师，设计最有影响力的所有早期的通信模型。 His goal was to formulate a theory to guide the efforts of engineers in finding the most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one location to another (Shannon and Weaver, 1949).他的目标是制订一套理论来指导工程师的努力，找到最有效的方式传送电信号从一个位置到另一个（香农和韦弗，1949年）。 LaterShannon LaterShannon introduced a mechanism in the receiver which corrected for differences between the transmitted and received signal; this monitoring or correcting mechanism was the forerunner of the now widely used concept of feedback (information which a communicator gains from others in response to his own verbal behavior).介绍了在接收，发送和接收信号之间的差异纠正机制，监督或纠正机制的先行者（信息的反馈，现在广泛使用的概念，从别人在自己的言语行为的传播者收益）。

b. B. Strengths优势

i. 一 This model, or a variation on it, is the most common communication model used in low-level communication texts.这种模式，或它的变体，是最常见的沟通模式，在低层次的沟通文本。

ii. II。 Significant development.长足的发展。 “Within a decade a host of other disciplines—many in the behavioral sciences—adapted it to countless interpersonal situations, often distorting it or making exaggerated claims for its use.” “在十年之内的许多其他学科的主机中的行为的科学适应它给无数的人际交往情况，往往扭曲或夸大其使用。”

iii. III。 “Taken as an approximation of the process of human communication.” “作为人类传播的过程中近似。”

iv. IV。 Significant heuristic value.显著的启发式值。

1.) 1。） With only slight changes in terminology, a number of nonmathematical schemas have elaborated on the major theme.术语只有轻微的变化，一些非数学模式，阐述了对重大主题。 For example, Harold Lasswell (1948) conceived of analyzing the mass media in five stages: “Who?” “Says what?” “In which channel?” “To whom?” “With what effect?” In apparent elaboration on Lasswell and/or Shannon and Weaver, George Gerbner (1956) extended the components to include the notions of perception, reactions to a situation, and message context.例如，哈罗德拉斯韦尔（1948）五个阶段分析大众传媒的设想：“谁”“说”，“在哪个频道？”，“谁”，“用什么样的影响？”在明显的制订和对拉斯韦尔吗？？ /或香农和韦弗，乔治格伯纳（1956）扩展的组件包括感知的概念，反应情况，​​消息上下文。

v. 诉 The concepts of this model became staples in communication research这种模式的概念在传播研究成为主食

1.) 1。） Entropy -the measure of uncertainty in a system. 熵在一个系统中的不确定性的措施。 “Uncertainty or entropy increases in exact proportion to the number of messages from which the source has to choose. “的不确定性或熵增加的确切消息源选择的比例。 In the simple matter of flipping a coin, entropy is low because the destination knows the probability of a coin's turning up either heads or tails.在掷硬币的简单问题，熵是目标，因为知道的一个硬币的转向任元首或尾巴概率低。 In the case of a two-headed coin, there can be neither any freedom of choice nor any reduction in uncertainty so long as the destination knows exactly what the outcome must be.在一个双​​向硬币的情况下，可以既没有选择的自由，也没有任何不确定性的减少，只要目的地确切地知道什么结果必须的。 In other words, the value of a specific bit of information depends on the probability that it will occur.换言之，一个特定的信息位的价值取决于它会发生的概率。 In general, the informative value of an item in a message decreases in exact proportion to the likelihood of its occurrence.”在一般情况下，一个项目在一个消息的参考价值，在其发生的可能性的确切比例下降。“

2.) 2。） Redundancy- the degree to which information is not unique in the system. 冗余的程度，信息在系统中唯一。 “Those items in a message that add no new information are redundant. “在邮件中添加任何新的信息的那些项目是多余的。 Perfect redundancy is equal to total repetition and is found in pure form only in machines.完美的冗余等于总重复，是纯粹的形式，只有在机器发现。 In human beings, the very act of repetition changes, in some minute way, the meaning or the message and the larger social significance of the event.在人类中，重复的变化，在某些分钟的方式，其含义或消息和较大的社会意义的事件的行为。 Zero redundancy creates sheer unpredictability, for there is no way of knowing what items in a sequence will come next.零冗余创建纯粹的不可预测性，有没有办法知道，接下来会发生什么样的一个序列中的项目。 As a rule, no message can reach maximum efficiency unless it contains a balance between the unexpected and the predictable, between what the receiver must have underscored to acquire understanding and what can be deleted as extraneous.”作为一项规则，没有消息可以达到最高效率，除非它包含了一个意想不到的和可预测之间的平衡接收机必须强调收购的理解，哪些可以删除无关，“

3.) 3。） Noise- the measure of information not related to the message. 噪音措施的信息不相关的消息。 “Any additional signal that interferes with the reception of information is noise. “任何额外的信号干扰与接收的信息是噪音。 In electrical apparatus noise comes only from within the system, whereas in human activity it may occur quite apart from the act of transmission and reception.在电气设备噪音只来自系统内，而在人类活动，它可能会发生，除了从传输和接收的行为。 Interference may result, for example, from background noise in the immediate surroundings, from noisy channels (a crackling microphone), from the organization and semantic aspects of the message (syntactical and semantical noise), or from psychological interference with encoding and decoding.可能造成干扰，例如，从周围的背景噪音，从组织和语义方面的消息（语法和语义的噪音），或从编码和解码的心理干预，从嘈杂的渠道（噼里啪啦麦克风）。 Noise need not be considered a detriment unless it produces a significant interference with the reception of the message.噪音不需要被认为是损害，除非它会产生一个与接收消息的显著干扰。 Even when the disturbance is substantial, the strength of the signal or the rate of redundancy may be increased to restore efficiency.”即使是相当可观的干扰时，信号的强度或冗余率可能会增加恢复的效率。“

4.) 4。） Channel Capacity- the measure of the maximum amount of information a channel can carry. 信道容量的最大量的信息通道可携带的措施。 “The battle against uncertainty depends upon the number of alternative possibilities the message eliminates. “对不确定性的战斗取决于消息消除了一些替代的可能性。 Suppose you wanted to know where a given checker was located on a checkerboard.假设你想知道的是位于棋盘上的一个给定的检查。 If you start by asking if it is located in the first black square at the extreme left of the second row from the top and find the answer to be no, sixty-three possibilities remain-a high level of uncertainty.如果你开始询问如果是在位于从上面的第二行最左边的第一个黑色的正方形，并​​找到问题的答案是否定的，六十三种可能性仍然是一个高度的不确定性。 On the other hand, if you first ask whether it falls on any square at the top half of the board, the alternative will be reduced by half regardless of the answer.另一方面，如果你先问是否属于任何平方米，在电路板的上半部分，替代将减少一半的答案，无论。 By following the first strategy it could be necessary to ask up to sixty-three questions (inefficient indeed!); but by consistently halving the remaining possibilities, you will obtain the right answer in no more than six tries.”它可以通过下面的第一个战略是必要的问到六十三个问题（低效的确！），但通过不断减少一半，剩下的可能性，你会在不超过六个月的尝试获得正确的答案“。

vi. VI。 Provided an influential yet counter-intuitive definition of communication.提供了一个有影响力的通信但反直观的定义。

From Littlejohn, Stephen W.从Littlejohn，斯蒂芬 Theories of Human Communication . 人类沟通的理论 。 Second Ed.第二版。 Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1983, p 116.加利福尼亚州贝尔蒙特：沃兹沃思，1983年，P 116。

Information is a measure of uncertainty, or entropy, in a situation . 信息的不确定性，或熵的措施，在这种情况。 The greater the uncertainty, the more the information.不确定性越大，更多的信息。 When a situation is completely predictable, no information is pres ent.当一种情况是完全可以预测，信息没有被压力ENT。 Most people associate information with certainty or knowledge; consequently, this definition from information theory can be con fusing. As used by the information theorist, the concept does not refer to a message, facts, or meaning.大多数人肯定或知识的关联信息，因此，从信息理论的定义，可以连接融合作为信息理论家，概念并不是指的消息，事实或意义。 It is a concept bound only to the quantification of stimuli or signals in a situa tion.它是只绑定在situa TION刺激或信号的量化一个概念。

On closer examination, this idea of informa tion is not as distant from common sense as it first appears.仔细观察，这种信息TION的想法是从遥远的常识，因为它第一次出现。 We have said that information is the amount of uncertainty in the situation.我们说，信息是不确定性的情况下量。 An other way of thinking of it is to consider infor mation as the number of messages required to completely reduce the uncertainty in the situa tion.它的思维的另一种方法是考虑需要的消息，彻底地减少不确定性situa TION信息mation。 For example, your friend is about to flip a coin.例如，你的朋友是抛硬币。 Will it land heads up or tails up?它最多土地抬起头或尾？ You are uncertain, you cannot predict.你不确定，你无法预知。 This uncertainty, which results from the entropy in the situation, will be eliminated by seeing the result of the flip.这种不确定性，从形势的熵结果，看到的翻转的结果将被淘汰。 Now let's suppose that you have received a tip that your friend's coin is two headed.现在让我们假设你收到一个提示，你的朋友的硬币是两个为首的。 The flip is “fixed.” There is no uncertainty and therefore no information.翻转是“固定”有没有不确定性，因此没有信息。 In other words, you could not receive any message that would make you predict any better than you already have.换句话说，你可能不会收到任何消息，将让你比你已经预测。 In short, a situation with which you are com pletely familiar has no information for you [emphasis added].总之，情况与您pletely熟悉COM没有信息[强调]。

vii.七。 See Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver,克劳德香农和韦弗沃伦， The Mathematical Theory of Communication 通信的数学理论 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949). （分校：伊利诺伊大学出版社，1949年）。 For a number of excellent brief secondary sources, see the bibliography.对于一些简短优秀的次要来源，请参阅书目。 Two sources were particu larly helpful in the preparation of this chapter: Allan R. Broadhurst and Donald K. Darnell, “An Introduction to Cybernetics and Information Theory,”有两个来源，特别是在编制本章larly有用：艾伦R.布罗德赫斯特和唐纳德K.达内尔，“控制论和信息论简介” Quarterly Journal of Speech 言语季刊 51 (1965): 442-53; Klaus Krippendorf, “Information Theory,” in 51（1965）：442-53;克劳斯Krippendorf，“信息论” Communication and Behavior, 通信和行为， ed.编辑。 G. Hanneman and W. McEwen (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 351-89. G. Hanneman和W.麦克尤恩（读，马萨诸塞州：Addison - Wesley出版，1975），351-89。

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

i. 一 Not analogous to much of human communication.类似人类沟通的。

1.) 1。） “Only a fraction of the information conveyed in interpersonal encounters can be taken as remotely corresponding to the teletype action of statistically rare or redundant signals.” “只有一所传达的信息在人际交往中遇到的一小部分，可以采取远程相应电传行动统计学罕见的或多余的信号。”

2.) 2。） “Though “虽然 Shannon's technical concept of information is fascinating in many respects, it ranks among the least important ways of conceiving of what we recognize as “information.” “香农信息技术的概念在许多方面是迷人的，它位居我们认识到作为构思的重要途径“信息”。“

ii. II。 Only formal—does not account for content只是形式上的不为内容的帐户

1.) 1。） Mortensen: “Shannon and Weaver were concerned only with technical problems associated with the selection and arrangement of discrete units of information—in short, with purely formal matters, not content.莫特森：“香农和韦弗只有离散单位的信息，在短期的选择和安排相关的技术问题，纯粹形式上的事项，而不是内容。 Hence, their model does not apply to semantic or pragmatic dimensions of language.因此，他们的模型并不适用于语言的语义或务实的尺寸。 “ “

2.) 2。） Theodore Roszak provides a thoughtful critique of 西奥多Roszak提供了周到的批判 Shannon's model in 香农模型 The Cult of Information. 信息崇拜。 Roszak notes the unique way in which Roszak注意到独特的方式在 Shannon香农 defined information :定义的信息 ：

Once, when he was explaining his work to a group of prominent scientists who challenged his eccentric definition, he replied, “I think perhaps the word 'information' is causing more trouble .有一次，当他解释他的工作，一批杰出的科学家质疑他偏心定义，他回答说，“我想也许这个词的”信息“是造成更多的麻烦。 . 。 . 。 than it is worth, except that it is difficult to find another word that is anywhere near right.较值得注意的是，除了它是很难找到另一个字，是任何地方附近的权利。 It should be kept solidly in mind that [information] is only a measure of the difficulty in transmitting the sequences produced by some information source ” [emphasis added] 应该牢记，扎实，[资料]只有在传递一些信息源产生的序列的难度措施“[强调]

3.) 3。） As Roszak points out,正如Roszak指出， Shannon's model has no mechanism for distinguishing important ideas from pure non-sense: Shannon的模型没有区分重要思想，从单纯的无感的机制：

In much the same way, in its new technical sense,在大致相同的方式，在其新的技术常识， information 信息 has come to denote whatever can be coded for transmission through a channel that connects a source with a receiver, regardless of semantic content.来表示任何可以传输通过一个通道连接与接收器的源编码，不管语义内容。 For对于 Shannon's purposes, all the following are “information”:香农的目的，以下是“信息”：

E = mc2 E = MC2

Jesus saves.耶稣保存。

Thou shalt not kill.不可杀人。

I think, therefore I am.因此我认为，我。

Phillies 8, Dodgers 5费城8日，道奇5

'Twas brillig and the slithy roves did gyre and gimble in the wabe. “TWAS brillig slithy roves没有在wabe环流和gimble。

And indeed, these are no more or less meaningful than any string of haphazard bits (x!9#44jGH?566MRK) I might be willing to pay to have telexed across the continent.事实上，这些都没有超过或少于任何杂乱无章位的字符串（X! 9＃44jGH？566MRK）我可能愿意支付给整个非洲大陆telexed有意义。

As the mathematician Warren Weaver once put it, explaining “the strange way in which, in this theory, the word 'information' is used .... 沃伦作为数学家韦弗曾这样解释“奇怪的方式，在这一理论中所说的”信息“是用来 ... ... It is surprising but true that, from the present viewpoint, two messages, one heavily loaded with meaning and the other pure nonsense, can be equivalent as regards information ” [emphasis added]. 这是令人惊讶，但真正的，从目前的角度来看，两个消息，一个重仓的意义和其他纯废话，可相当于至于信息“[强调]。

iii. III。 Static and Linear静态和线性

1.) 1。） Mortensen: “Finally, the most serious shortcoming of the Shannon-Weaver communication system is that it is relatively static and linear.莫特森：“最后，香农 - 韦弗通信系统的最严重的缺点是，它是相对静态和线性。 It conceives of a linear and literal transmission of information from one location to another.它设想的线性和文字传输的信息从一个位置到另一个。 The notion of linearity leads to misleading ideas when transferred to human conduct; some of the problems can best be underscored by studying several alternative models of communication.”线性的概念误导思想转移到人的行为时的一些问题的最好办法是学习通信的几种可供选择的模式强调“。

2. 2。 Berlo's SMCR, 1960 Berlo的SMCR，1960年

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Ehninger, Gronbeck and Ehninger，Gronbeck和 Monroe: “The simplest and most influential message-centered model of our time came from David Berlo (Simplified from David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication梦露：“我们这个时代的最简单和最有影响力的的消息为中心的模型来自大卫Berlo（大卫K. Berlo，沟通的过程简化 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960)):” （纽约：Holt，莱因哈特，和温斯顿，1960））：“

ii. II。 Essentially an adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model.本质上是一个适应的香农 - 韦弗模式。

b. B. Significant after World War II because:二战结束后，意义重大，因为：

i. 一 The idea of “source” was flexible enough to include oral, written, electronic, or any other kind of “symbolic” generator-of-messages. “源”的想法是具有足够的灵活性，包括口头，书面，电子或任何其他种类的“象征性”消息发电机。

ii. II。 “Message” was made the central element, stressing the transmission of ideas. “消息”的主要内容，强调思想的传播。

iii. III。 The model recognized that receivers were important to communication, for they were the targets.该模型确认接收者沟通是很重要的，因为他们的目标。

iv. IV。 The notions of “encoding” and “decoding” emphasized the problems we all have (psycho-linguistically) in translating our own thoughts into words or other symbols and in deciphering the words or symbols of others into terms we ourselves can understand. “编码”和“解码”的概念强调的问题，我们都有（心理语言学），在我们自己的想法转换成文字或其他符号，并在破译到我们自己可以理解的术语的字或其他符号。

c. C. Weaknesses:劣势：

i. 一 Tends to stress the manipulation of the message—the encoding and decoding processes往往强调操纵消息的编码和解码过程

ii. II。 it implies that human communication is like machine communication, like signal-sending in telephone, television, computer, and radar systems.它意味着人类的沟通是像机通讯，信号发送电话，电视，计算机，雷达系统一样，。

iii. III。 It even seems to stress that most problems in human communication can be solved by technical accuracy-by choosing the “right” symbols, preventing interference, and sending efficient messages.它甚至似乎强调人类沟通的大多数问题可以通过技术解决的准确性，选择“正确”的符号，以防止干扰，发送高效的消息。

iv. IV。 But even with the “right” symbols, people misunderstand each other.但即使有“正确”的符号，人们相互误解。 “Problems in “meaning” or “meaningfulness” often aren'ta matter of comprehension, but of reaction, of agreement, of shared concepts, beliefs, attitudes, values.意思是“或”意义“往往aren'ta理解的问题，但反应，共享的观念，信仰，态度，价值观的协议，”问题“。 To put the放 com- COM - back into communication, we need a到通信，我们需要一个 meaning-centered 以意义为中心 theory of communication.”传播理论“。

3. 3。 Schramm's Interactive Model, 1954 施拉姆的互动模式，1954年

a. A. Background背景

Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver.威尔伯施拉姆（1954）首先要改变的香农和韦弗的数学模型之一。 He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages.他设想的解码和编码发送者和接收者同时保持活动，他也做了双向交换的消息了规定。 Notice also the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning.公告还列入“解释”的含义问题的抽象表示。

(From Wilbur Schramm, “How Communication Works,” in （从威尔伯施拉姆，“通信工程” The Process and Effects of Communication, 这个过程和传播效果， ed.编辑。 Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-26):威尔伯施拉姆（分校：伊利诺伊大学出版社，1954年），页3-26）：

b. B. Strengths优势

i. 一 Schramm provided the additional notion of a “field of experience,” or the psychological frame of reference; this refers to the type of orientation or attitudes which interactants maintain toward each other.施拉姆的“领域的丰富经验”，或心理的参考帧的额外概念，这是指的倾向或态度相互作用方对彼此保持的类型。

ii. II。 Included Feedback包括反馈

1.) 1。） Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed.沟通是相互的，双向的，即使可能会延迟反馈。

a.) A.） Some of these methods of communication are very这些沟通方式有些是非常 direct, 直接， as when you talk in direct response to someone.比如当你的直接回应某人交谈。

b.) B.） Others are only其他人只 moderately direct ; you might squirm when a speaker drones on and on, wrinkle your nose and scratch your head when a message is too abstract, or shift your body position when you think it's your turn to talk. 适度的直接 ，你可能会蠕动时，就和你的鼻子，皱纹扬声器，无人驾驶飞机和划伤你的头一条消息时，过于抽象，或把你的身体状况，当你觉得这是你的转谈。

c.) C.） Still other kinds of feedback are completely还有其他种类的反馈是完全 indirect . 间接的 。

2.) 2。） For example,例如，

a.) A.） politicians discover if they're getting their message across by the number of votes cast on the first Tuesday in November;政治家发现，如果他们得到他们的消息在11月的第一个星期二票数对面;

b.) B.） commercial sponsors examine sales figures to gauge their communicative effectiveness in ads;商业赞助研究的销售数字，以衡量他们在广告中的交际效果;

c.) C.） teachers measure their abilities to get the material across in a particular course by seeing how many students sign up for it the next term.教师衡量自己的能力得到跨在一个特定的过程中看到多少学生报名参加了下一届的材料。

iii. III。 Included Context包括上下文

1.) 1。） A message may have different meanings, depending upon the specific context or setting.一个消息可能有不同的含义，根据具体的语境或设置而定。

2.) 2。） Shouting “Fire!” on a rifle range produces one set of reactions-reactions quite different from those produced in a crowded theater.喊“着火了！”一个射击场产生的反应，反应在拥挤的剧院制作的完全不同的设置。

iv. IV。 Included Culture包括文化

1.) 1。） A message may have different meanings associated with it depending upon the culture or society.一个消息可能有不同的含义，取决于文化或社会。 Communication systems, thus, operate within the confines of cultural rules and expectations to which we all have been educated.通信系统，因此，文化规则和期望，我们大家都受到了教育的范围内经营。

v. 诉 Other model designers abstracted the dualistic aspects of communication as a series of “loops,” (Mysak, 1970), “speech cycles” (Johnson, 1953), “co-orientation” (Newcomb, 1953), and overlapping “psychological fields” (Fearing, 1953).其他模型设计师抽象二元的沟通方面的一系列“循环”（Mysak 1970年），“讲话周期”（约翰逊，1953年），“合作方向”（纽科姆，1953年），和重叠的“心理领域” （恐惧，1953年）。

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

i. 一 Schramm's model, while less linear, still accounts for only bilateral communication between two parties.施拉姆的模型，虽然少线性，但仍占只有双方之间的双边交流。 The complex, multiple levels of communication between several sources is beyond this model.几个来源之间的复杂，多层次的沟通是超越这种模式。

F. 楼 Non-linear Models 非线性模型

1. 1。 Dance's Helical Spiral, 1967 舞蹈的螺旋螺旋，1967年

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Depicts communication as a dynamic process.描绘成一个动态的过程通信。 Mortensen: “The helix represents the way communication evolves in an individual from his birth to the existing moment.”莫特森：“螺旋的方式沟通，从他出生到现有的时刻个人的发展。”

ii. II。 Dance: “At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that communication while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past behavior, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it emerges.舞蹈：“在任何和所有时代，螺旋给几何证明的概念，沟通而前进，在同一时刻回来后，本身受到影响的螺旋曲线，其过去的行为是从根本上影响从它出现的曲线。 Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower-level distortions.然而，尽管缓慢，螺旋可以逐步摆脱低层次的扭曲本身。 The communication process, like the helix, is constantly moving forward and yet is always to some degree dependent upon the past, which informs the present and the future.沟通过程中，像螺旋，是不断向前发展，但总是在一定程度上依赖于过去的现在和未来，它通知。 The helical communication model offers a flexible communication process” [p.螺旋通信模型提供一个灵活的沟通的过程“[第 296]. 296]。

b. B. Strengths优势

i. 一 Mortensen: “As a heuristic device, the helix is interesting not so much for what it says as for what it permits to be said.莫特森：“作为一种启发式设备，螺旋有趣的是，它说，它允许什么可说的东西没有那么多。 Hence, it exemplifies a point made earlier: It is important to approach models in a spirit of speculation and intellectual play.”因此，它充分体现了早先提出的一点：投机和智力发挥的精神是很重要的方法模型“。

ii. II。 Chapanis (1961) called “sophisticated play:” Chapanis（1961）所谓的“复杂的发挥：”

The helix implies that communication is continuous, unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative; that is, each phase of activity depends upon present forces at work as they are defined by all that has occurred before.螺旋意味着，沟通是连续的，空前绝后，添加剂，累计，也就是说，取决于活动的每个阶段后，目前在工作力量，因为它们是所有之前已经发生的定义。 All experience contributes to the shape of the unfolding moment; there is no break in the action, no fixed beginning, no pure redundancy, no closure.所有的经验，有助于展开时刻的形状;有行动没有休息，没有固定的开端，没有纯粹的冗余，没有封闭。 All communicative experience is the product of learned, nonrepeatable events which are defined in ways the organism develops to be self-consistent and socially meaningful.所有的交际经验，是产品，据悉，这是有机体的发展是自我一致的和具有社会意义的方式定义的不可重复的事件。 In short, the helix underscores the integrated aspects of all human communication as an evolving process that is always turned inward in ways that permit learning, growth, and discovery.总之，螺旋强调所有的人际沟通作为一个不断发展的过程中，始终是打开的学习，成长，和发现的方式，允许外来的综合方面。

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

i. 一 May not be a model at all: too few variables.可能不是在所有的模型：太少变量。

Mortensen: “If judged against conventional scientific standards, the helix does not fare well as a model.莫特森：“如果对传统的科学标准判断，不加价螺旋模型。 Indeed, some would claim that it does not meet the requirements of a model at all.事实上，有些人会声称，它并没有满足模型的要求，在所有。 More specifically, it is not a systematic or formalized mode of representation.更确切地说，它是不是系统或正式的代表性模式。 Neither does it formalize relationships or isolate key variables.也没有正式关系，或者隔离关键变量。 It describes in the abstract but does not explicitly explain or make particular hypotheses testable.”它描述了抽象的，但并没有明确解释或可检验的特定假设。“

ii. II。 Generates Questions, but leaves much unaswered.产生的问题，但叶多unaswered。

Mortensen: “For example, does not the helix imply a false degree of continuity from one communicative situation to another?莫特森：“例如，不螺旋意味着从一个交际情境的连续性的虚假程度到另一个？ Do we necessarily perceive all encounters as actually occurring in an undifferentiated, unbroken sequence of events?我们一定认为所有交锋，实际上是在一个未分化的，完整的事件序列发生吗？ Does an unbroken line not conflict with the human experience of discontinuity, intermittent periods, false starts, and so forth?一个完整行是否与人类经验的不连续性，间歇期，错误的开始，等等冲突？ Is all communication a matter of growth, upward and onward, in an ever-broadening range of encounters?是一个增长的问题，向上和前进中遇到的范围日益扩大，所有的通信？ If the helix represents continuous learning and growth, how can the same form also account for deterioration and decay?如果螺旋代表不断的学习和成长，怎么能相同的形式也变质和腐烂的帐户？ What about the forces of entropy, inertia, decay, and pathology?熵，惯性，衰减，和病理的力量是什么？ And does not the unbroken line of a helix tacitly ignore the qualitative distinctions that inevitably characterize different communicative events?和不完整的一个螺旋线，默默地忽视了质的区别，不可避免地刻画不同的交际活动？ Also, what about movements which we define as utterly wasted, forced, or contrived?此外，我们定义为完全浪费的运动，强迫，或有预谋的呢？ Along similar lines, how can the idea of continuous, unbroken growth include events we consider meaningless, artificial, or unproductive?按照类似的思路，如何构思连续的，不间断的增长，包括我们认为毫无意义的，人为的，或非生产性的事件吗？ Countless other questions could be raised.无数的其他问题可以提出。 And that is the point.这是一点。 The model brings problems of abstraction into the open.该模型带入开放的抽象问题。 “rtificial, or unproductive? “rtificial，或非生产性的？ Countless other questions could be raised.无数的其他问题可以提出。 And that is the point.这是一点。 The model brings problems of abstraction into the open.该模型带入开放的抽象问题。 “ “

2. 2。 Westley and MacLean's Conceptual Model, 1957 威利和麦克莱恩的概念模型，1957年

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Westley and MacLean realized that communication does not begin when one person starts to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his immediate physical surroundings.威利和麦克莱恩意识到沟通没有开始，当一个人开始谈，而当一个人有选择性地响应他的直接的物理环境。

ii. II。 Each interactant responds to his sensory experience (X 1每个interactant响应他的感官体验（ 1 . 。 . 。 . 。 ) by abstracting out certain objects of orientation (X 1 ）抽象出某些对象的方向（x 1 . 。 . 。 . 。 3m). 3M）。 Some items are selected for further interpretation or coding (X') and then are transmitted to another person, who may or may not be responding to the same objects of orientation (X,b),选择一些项目作进一步的解释或编码（X），然后传染给另一个人，他们可能或可能不会作出回应的方向相同的对象（X，B），

A 一 conceptual model of communication. 沟通的概念模型 。 (Reprinted with permission from Westley and MacLean, Jr., 1957.) （许可威利和麦克莱恩，小，1957年重印。） (a) Objects of orientation (X 1 （一）定向对象（X 1 ... ... ... X) in the sensory field of the receiver (B) are trans mitted directly to him in abstracted form x）在接收机的感官场（B）反mitted直接向他在抽象形式 (XZ ... X 3 ) （征... × 3） after a process of selection from among all Xs, such selection being based at least in part on the needs and problems of B. Some or all messages are transmitted in more than one sense 后一个选择过程中所有的X，这种选择是基于B的需求和问题，至少在部分部分或所有的消息都在不止一个方面来讲传输 (X3m, （X3M for example). 例如）。 (b) The same Xs are selected and abstracted by communicator A and transmitted as a message (x') to B, who may or may not have part or all of the Xs in his own sensory field (X1b). （二）选择相同的X和传播者抽象和传播消息（X）到B，人可能会或可能不会在自己的感官领域（X1B）的部分或全部的XS 。 Whether on purpose or not, B transmits feedback (fBA) to A. 无论目的或不乙发送反馈到A（FBA） (c) The Xs that B receives may result from selected abstractions which are transmitted without purpose by encoder C, who acts for B and thus extends B's environment. （三）B接收到的xs，可能会导致传输未经编码器，为B行为的目的，从而扩展了B的环境从选定抽象。 C's selections are necessarily based in part on feedback (fBC) from B. C的选择是基于反馈的一部分，从B（ FBC） (d) The messages which C transmits to B (x") represent C's selections both from the messages he gets from A (x') and from the abstractions in his own sensory field （D）的消息，其中C传输到B（X）代表C的选择，无论是从他得到的消息从A（X）和从自己的感官领域的抽象 (X3c, （X3c X 4 ), which may or may not be in A's field. × 4），这可能会或可能不会在A的领域。 Feedback moves not only from B to A (fBA) and from B to C (f B C ) 反馈不仅从B移动到一个（FBA）和从B到C（F B C） but also from C to A (fCA). 但也从C到A（FCA）。 Clearly, in mass communication, a large number of Cs receive from a very large number of As and transmit to a vastly larger number of Bs, who simultaneously receive messages from other Cs. 显然，在大众传播，接收大量的CS从一个非常大的数量和发射的BS的数量大得多，同时接收来自其他铯的消息。

b. B. Strengths优势

i. 一 Accounts for Feedback反馈的帐户

ii. II。 Accounts for a sensory field or, in Newcomb's (1953) words, “objects of co-orientation.”为感官领域的帐目，或纽科姆（1953）的话，“面向合作的对象。”

iii. III。 Accounts for non-binary interactions—more than just two people communicating directly.非二进制比只有两个人直接沟通的互动更多的帐目。

iv. IV。 Accounts for different modes.不同模式的帐目。 Eg interpersonal vs. mass mediated communication.例如人际关系与大众媒介的交流。

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

i. 一 Westley and MacLean's model accounts for many more variables in the typical communication interaction.威利和麦克莱恩的模型帐户有更多的变量在典型的互动沟通。 It is, however, still two-dimensional.它是，但是，还是二维的。 It cannot account for the multiple dimensions of the typical communication event involving a broad context and multiple message.它不能解释为典型的通信事件，涉及广泛的范围内和多个消息从多个层面。

3. 3。 Becker's Mosaic Model, 1968 贝克尔的镶嵌模型，1968年

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Mortensen: “Becker assumes that most communicative acts link message elements from more than one social situation.莫特森：“贝克尔假定最交际行为的链接从一个以上的社会状况消息元素。 In the tracing of various elements of a message, it is clear that the items may result in part from a talk with an associate, from an obscure quotation read years before, from a recent TV commercial, and from numerous other dissimilar situations—moments of introspection, public debate, coffee-shop banter, daydreaming, and so on.在追查消息的各种元素，它是明确的项目可能会导致从一间联营公司谈话的一部分，从一个不起眼的报价读几年前从最近的电视广告，，和其他许多不同的情况下瞬间反省，公开辩论，咖啡店戏谑，白日梦，等等。 In short, the elements that make up a message ordinarily occur in bits and pieces.总之，这些元素构成一个消息通常发生在星星点点。 Some items are separated by gaps in time, others by gaps in modes of presentation, in social situations, or in the number of persons present.”在时间上有些项目是由空白隔开，其他由差距在演示模式，在社交场合，或人目前的数量。“

ii. II。 Mortensen: “Becker likens complex communicative events to the activity of a receiver who moves through a constantly changing cube or mosaic of information .莫特森：“贝克尔比喻复杂到一个接收器，通过一个不断变化的多维数据集或镶嵌信息移动的活动的交际活动。 The layers of the cube correspond to layers of information.立方体的层次对应的信息层。 Each section of the cube represents a potential source of information; note that some are blocked out in recognition that at any given point some bits of information are not available for use. Other layers correspond to potentially relevant sets of information.”

b. B. Strengths (from Mortensen)

i. 一 It depicts the incredible complexity of communication as influenced by a constantly changing milieu.

ii. It also accounts for variations in exposure to messages. In some circumstances receivers may be flooded by relevant information; in others they may encounter only a few isolated items. Individual differences also influence level of exposure; some people seem to be attuned to a large range of information, while others miss or dismiss much as extraneous.

iii. Different kinds of relationships between people and messages cut through the many levels of exposure. Some relationships are confined to isolated situations, others to recurrent events. Moreover, some relationships center on a particular message, while others focus on more diffuse units; that is, they entail a complex set of relationships between a given message and the larger backdrop of information against which it is interpreted.

iv. IV。 It may be useful to conceive of an interaction between two mosaics. One comprises the information in a given social milieu, as depicted in the model; the other includes the private mosaic of information that is internal to the receiver. The internal mosaic is every bit as complex as the one shown in the model, but a person constructs it for himself.

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

i. 一 Even though this model adds a third dimension, it does not easily account for all the possible dimensions involved in a communication event.

G. Multidimensional Models

1. 1。 Ruesch and Bateson, Functional Model, 1951

a. A. Mortensen: “Ruesch and Bateson conceived of communication as functioning simultaneously at four levels of analysis. One is the basic intrapersonal process (level 1). The next (level 2) is interpersonal and focuses on the overlapping fields of experience of two interactants. Group interaction (level 3) comprises many people. And finally a cultural level (level 4) links large groups of people. Moreover, each level of activity consists of four communicative functions: evaluating, sending, receiving, and channeling. Notice how the model focuses less on the structural attributes of communication-source, message, receiver, etc.—and more upon the actual determinants of the process.”

b. B. Mortensen: “A similar concern with communicative functions can be traced through the models of Carroll (1955), Fearing (1953), Mysak (1970), Osgood (1954), and Peterson (1958). Peterson's model is one of the few to integrate the physiological and psychological functions at work in all interpersonal events.”

2. 2。 Barnlund's Transactional Model, 1970

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Mortensen: “By far the most systematic of the functional models is the transactional approach taken by Barnlund (1970, pp. 83-102), one of the few investigators who made explicit the key assumptions on which his model was based.”

ii. Mortensen: “Its most striking feature is the absence of any simple or linear directionality in the interplay between self and the physical world. The spiral lines connect the functions of encoding and decoding and give graphic representation to the continuous, unrepeatable, and irreversible assumptions mentioned earlier. Moreover, the directionality of the arrows seems deliberately to suggest that meaning is actively assigned or attributed rather than simply passively received.”

iii. “Any one of three signs or cues may elicit a sense of meaning. Public cues (Cpu) derive from the environment. They are either natural, that is, part of the physical world, or artificial and man-made. Private objects of orientation (Cpr) are a second set of cues. They go beyond public inspection or awareness. Examples include the cues gained from sunglasses, earphones, or the sensory cues of taste and touch. Both public and private cues may be verbal or nonverbal in nature. What is critical is that they are outside the direct and deliberate control of the interactants. The third set of cues are deliberate; they are the behavioral and nonverbal (Cbehj cues that a person initiates and controls himself. Again, the process involving deliberate message cues is reciprocal. Thus, the arrows connecting behavioral cues stand both for the act of producing them-technically a form of encoding-and for the interpretation that is given to an act of others (decoding). The jagged lines (VVVV ) at each end of these sets of cues illustrate the fact that the number of available cues is probably without limit. Note also the valence signs (+, 0, or -) that have been attached to public, private, and behavioral cues. They indicate the potency or degree of attractiveness associated with the cues. Presumably, each cue can differ in degree of strength as well as in kind. “t each end of these sets of cues illustrate the fact that the number of available cues is probably without limit. Note also the valence signs (+, 0, or -) that have been attached to public, private, and behavioral cues. They indicate the potency or degree of attractiveness associated with the cues. Presumably, each cue can differ in degree of strength as well as in kind."

b. B. Strengths优势

Mortensen: “The assumptions posit a view of communication as transactions in which communicators attribute meaning to events in ways that are dynamic, continuous, circular, unrepeatable, irreversible, and complex.”

c. C. Weaknesses弱点

Mortensen: “The exception is the assumption that communication describes the evolution of meaning. In effect, the model presupposes that the terms communication and meaning are synonymous and interchangeable. Yet nowhere does the model deal in even a rudimentary way with the difficult problem of meaning. The inclusion of decoding and encoding may be taken as only a rough approximation of the “evolution of meaning,” but such dualistic categories are not particularly useful in explaining the contingencies of meaning.”

H. Suggestions for Communication Models

1. 1。 A 一 Systemic Model of Communication, 1972

a. A. Background背景

Some communication theorists have attempted to construct models in light of General Systems Theory. The “key assumption” of GST “is that every part of the system is so related to every other part that any change in one aspect results in dynamic changes in all other parts of the total system (Hall and Fagen, 1956). It is necessary, then, to think of communication not so much as individuals functioning under their own autonomous power but rather as persons interacting through messages. Hence, the minimum unit of measurement is that which ties the respective parties and their surroundings into a coherent and indivisible whole.”

b. B. A Systemic Communication Model would have to address the following axioms by Watzlawick and his associates (1967).

i. 一 The Impossibility of Not Communicating

Interpersonal behavior has no opposites. It is not possible to conceive of non-behavior. If all behavior in an interactional situation can be taken as having potential message value, it follows that no matter what is said and done, “one cannot not communicate.” Silence and inactivity are no exceptions. Even when one person tries to ignore the overtures of another, he nonetheless communicates a disinclination to talk.

ii. Content and Relationship in Communication

All face-to-face encounters require some sort of personal recognition and commitment which in turn create and define the relationship between the respective parties.所有面对面遇到需要某种个人的认可和承诺，这反过来又创造和定义有关各方之间的关系。 “Communication,” wrote Watzlawick (1967), “not only conveys information, but ... “通信”，Watzlawick（1967年）写道，“不仅传递信息，但... ... at the same time .在同一时间 . 。 . 。 imposes behavior [p.规定的行为[第 51].” Any activity that communicates information can be taken as synonymous with the content of the message, regardless of whether it is true or false, valid or invalid. 51]。“信息传递的任何活动，可以作为邮件内容的代名词，不管它是否是真的还是假的，有效或无效。 . 。 . 。 . 。 Each spoken word, every movement of the body, and all the eye glances furnish a running commentary on how each person sees himself, the other person, and the other person's reactions.每讲一句话，身体的每一个运动，和所有的眼睛传情提供运行的评论对每个人如何看待自己，其他人，和其他人的反应。

iii. III。 The Punctuation of the Sequence of Events 事件的顺序标点符号

Human beings “set up between them patterns of interchange (about which they may or may not be in agreement) and these patterns will in fact be rules of contingency regarding the exchange of reinforcement” [pp.人类“设立它们之间的转乘模式，他们可能会或可能不会在协议和这些模式实际上将应急加固交流的规则”[第 273-274]. 273-274]。

iv. IV。 Symmetrical and Complementary Interaction 对称和互补互动

A symmetrical relationship evolves in the direction of heightening similarities; a complementary relationship hinges increasingly on individual differences. The word symmetrical suggests a relationship in which the respective parties mirror the behavior of the other. Whatever one does, the other tends to respond in kind. Thus, an initial act of trust fosters a trusting response; suspicion elicits suspicion; warmth and congeniality encourage more of the same, and so on. In sharp contrast is a complementary relationship, where individual differences complement or dovetail into a sequence of change. Whether the complementary actions are good or bad, productive or injurious, is not relevant to the concept.

2. 2。 Brown's Holographic Model, 1987

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Rhetorical theorist, William Brown, proposed “The Holographic View of Argument” ( Argumentation , 1 (1987): 89-102).

ii. Arguing against an analytical approach to communication that dissects the elements of communication, Brown argued for seeing argument or communication as a hologram “which as a metaphor for the nature of argument emphasizes not the knowledge that comes from seeing the parts in the whole but rather that which arises from seeing the whole in each part.”

iii. “The ground of argument in a holographic structure is a boundaryless event.”

b. B. A model of communication based on Brown's holographic metaphor would see connections between divided elements and divisions between connections.

3. 3。 A Fractal Model

a. A. Background背景

i. 一 Polish-born mathematician, Benoit Mandelbrot, while working for IBM in the 1960s and 70s, became intrigued with the possibility of deriving apparently irregular shapes with a mathematical formula. "Clouds are not spheres," he said, "mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line." So if these regular geometric forms could not account for natural patterns, what could?

ii. To solve the problem, Mandelbrot developed the fractal , a simple, repeating shape that can be created by repeating the same formula over and over.

“I coined fractal from the Latin adjective fractus . The corresponding Latin verb frangere means 'to break': to create irregular fragments. It is therefore sensible—and how appropriate for our needs!—that, in addition to 'fragmented' fractus should also mean 'irregular,' both meanings being preserved in fragment.” Benoit Mandelbrot

Construction of a Fractal Snowflake

A Koch snowflake is constructed by making progressive additions to a simple triangle. The additions are made by dividing the equilateral triangle's sides into thirds, then creating a new triangle on each middle third. Thus, each frame shows more complexity, but every new triangle in the design looks exactly like the initial one. This reflection of the larger design in its smaller details is characteristic of all fractals.

iii. Fractal shapes occur everywhere in nature: a head of broccoli, a leaf, a snowflake—almost any natural form. See参见 http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/explorer/index.html .

iv. IV。 Mandelbrot's discovery changed computer graphics—by using fractal formulas, graphic engines could create natural-looking virtual landscapes. More importantly, fractal formulas can account for variations in other natural patterns such as economic markets and weather patterns.

Mandelbrot Set

Polish-born French mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot coined the term “fractal” to describe complex geometric shapes that, when magnified, continue to resemble the shape's larger structure. This property, in which the pattern of the whole repeats itself on smaller and smaller scales, is called self similarity. The fractal shown here, called the Mandelbrot set, is the graphical representation of a mathematical function.

v. 诉 Fractals allow for almost infinite density. For example, Mandelbrot considered the deceptively simple question: “How long is the coast line of Britain?” A typical answer will ignore inlets and bays smaller than a certain size. But if we account for these small coastline features, and then those smaller still, we would soon find ourselves with a line of potentially infinite and constantly changing length. A fractal equation could account for such a line.

vi. VI。 Fractal geometry is in some ways related to chaos theory, the science of finding pattern in apparently random sequences, like a dripping faucet or weather patterns. Chaos theory has been applied to computer-generated landscapes, organizational structures ( http://www.cio.com/archive/enterprise/041598_qanda_content.html ), and even washing machines. Of course, it has also been applied to economics and the stock market, in particular:

The stock markets are said to be nonlinear, dynamic systems. Chaos theory is the mathematics of studying such nonlinear, dynamic systems. Does this mean that chaoticians can predict when stocks will rise and fall? Not quite; however, chaoticians have determined that the market prices are highly random, but with a trend. The stock market is accepted as a self-similar system in the sense that the individual parts are related to the whole. Another self-similar system in the area of mathematics are fractals. Could the stock market be associated with a fractal? Why not?为什么不呢？ In the market price action, if one looks at the market monthly, weekly, daily, and intra day bar charts, the structure has a similar appearance. However, just like a fractal, the stock market has sensitive dependence on initial conditions. This factor is what makes dynamic market systems so difficult to predict. Because we cannot accurately describe the current situation with the detail necessary, we cannot accurately predict the state of the system at a future time. Stock market success can be predicted by chaoticians. Short-term investing, such as intra day exchanges are a waste of time. Short-term traders will fail over time due to nothing more than the cost of trading. However, over time, long-term price action is not random. Traders can succeed trading from daily or weekly charts if they follow the trends. A system can be random in the short-term and deterministic in the long term ( http://www.duke.edu/~mjd/chaos/chaos.html ).

vii.七。 One key premise in both chaos theory and fractals is "sensitive dependence on initial conditions." One early chaos theorist studying weather patterns stumbled on this when he was using a simple computer program to plot the course of only 12 weather variables. The computer printout ran out of paper, so he noted the status of the variables at an earlier point, stopped the process, replaced the paper and restarted the process at the earlier point. Even though the variables started at the same point, the patterns quickly diverged, demonstrating the similar or even identical initial conditions can lead to radically different outcomes (This story is in James Gleick, Chaos: Making A New Science ).

This phenomenon led researchers to talk about "the butterfly effect" to illustrate how a very small change can produce significant changes in a system. The butterfly effect refers to the fact that a butterfly flapping its wings over Beijing can result in a change in the weather patterns in New York two months later.

b. B. Applying Fractals to Communication

i. 一 Like Dance's Helix, seeing communication as a fractal form allows us to conceptualize the almost infinite density of a communication event.

ii. Margaret J. Wheatley has attempted to apply Fractal theory and the science of chaos to management. ( Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Kohler Publishers, 1992.) You can read some of Wheatley's ideas here.

iii. The significance of this for the topic at hand is this: First, the patterns of complexity in natural systems, of which human beings are a part, is profoundly complex and not easily captured in any formula. Therefore, any predictions about the outcome of these systems are necessarily limited because of the difficulty of being sensitive to initial conditions. A model of communication drawn from fractals and chaos theory would have to reflect this complexity and respond to variations in initial conditions.

iv. IV。 In addition, if we marry the fractal to other mathematical constructs, we can develop an even richer heuristic.

1.) The mathematician Rudy Rucker, in a way that only mathematicians can, said “Life is a fractal in Hilbert space.” ( Mind Tools: The Five Levels of Mathematical Reality (Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1987) 248.)

2.) Hilbert Space is a theoretical multi-dimensional space. Rucker is saying that life is an infinitely variegated entity that exists in multiple dimensions.

3.) So, we can borrow Rucker's phrase and say that communication is a fractal in Hilbert space.

I. 一 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. 1。 Barnlund, DC Interpersonal Communication: Survey and Studies . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968.

2. 2。 Chapanis, A. “Men, Machines, and Models,” American Psychologist , 16:113131, 1961.

3. 3。 Deutsch, K. “On Communication Models in the Social Sciences,” Public Opinion Quarterly , 16:356-380, 1952.

4. 4。 Gerbner, G. “Toward a General Model of Communication,” Audio-Visual Communication Review , 4:171-199, 1956.

5. 5。 Kaplan, A. The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science . San Francisco:旧金山： Chandler, 1964.

6. 6。 Lackman, R. “The Model in Theory Construction,” Psychological Review , 67:113-129, 1960.

7. 7。 Sereno, KK, and Mortensen, CD Foundations of Communication Theory . New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

8. 8。 Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J., and Jackson, D. Pragmatics of Human Communication . New York: Norton, 1967.