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• Overall growth wasn’t driven by tariffs. Economic historian Douglas Irwin finds that the famous late-19th-century correlation between high tariffs and growth is not causal. When you control for other factors, the case that protection accelerated U.S. growth weakens substantially. American Economic Association+1

• America’s boom came from other engines. Late-19th-century U.S. growth leaned more on rapid population expansion, capital accumulation, resources, and technology—not on tariff walls. In fact, tariffs likely discouraged capital accumulation by making imported machinery and inputs costlier. NBER

• Tariffs did build revenue. Before the income tax (1913), customs duties were the federal government’s primary funding source for long stretches of the 19th century—useful for state-building but not proof of faster growth. Congress.gov+1